The sample questions on the following pages are typical of the
Reading Comprehension questions you will find on the LSAT. Three
single-passage Reading Comprehension passages are included, but they are
followed by only two or three sample questions each, whereas each
passage in the actual LSAT is followed by five to eight questions.
However, the Comparative Reading set below includes seven questions and
explanations for test preparation purposes.
Directions:
Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage or
a pair of passages. The questions are to be answered on the basis of
what is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some
of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer
the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the
response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Passage for Questions 1, 2, and 3
The painter Roy Lichtenstein helped to define pop art — the
movement that incorporated commonplace objects and commercial-art
techniques into paintings — by paraphrasing the style of comic
books in his work. His merger of a popular genre with the forms and
intentions of fine art generated a complex result: while poking fun at
the pretensions of the art world, Lichtenstein's work also managed to
convey a seriousness of theme that enabled it to transcend mere
parody.
That Lichtenstein's images were fine art was at first difficult to
see, because, with their word balloons and highly stylized figures, they
looked like nothing more than the comic book panels from which they were
copied. Standard art history holds that pop art emerged as an
impersonal alternative to the histrionics of abstract expressionism, a
movement in which painters conveyed their private attitudes and emotions
using nonrepresentational techniques. The truth is that by the time pop
art first appeared in the early 1960s, abstract expressionism had
already lost much of its force. Pop art painters weren't quarreling
with the powerful early abstract expressionist work of the late 1940s
but with a second generation of abstract expressionists whose work
seemed airy, high-minded, and overly lyrical. Pop art paintings were
full of simple black lines and large areas of primary color.
Lichtenstein's work was part of a general rebellion against the fading
emotional power of abstract expressionism, rather than an aloof attempt
to ignore it.
But if rebellion against previous art by means of the careful
imitation of a popular genre were all that characterized Lichtenstein's
work, it would possess only the reflective power that parodies have in
relation to their subjects. Beneath its cartoonish methods, his work
displayed an impulse toward realism, an urge to say that what was
missing from contemporary painting was the depiction of contemporary life.
The stilted
romances and war stories portrayed in the comic books
on which he based his canvases, the stylized automobiles, hot dogs, and
table lamps that appeared in his pictures, were reflections of the
culture Lichtenstein inhabited. But, in contrast to some pop art,
Lichtenstein's work exuded not a jaded cynicism about consumer culture,
but a kind of deliberate naivete, intended as a response to the excess
of sophistication he observed not only in the later abstract
expressionists but in some other pop artists. With the comics —
typically the domain of youth and innocence — as his reference
point, a nostalgia fills his paintings that gives them, for all their
surface bravado, an inner sweetness. His persistent use of comic-art
conventions demonstrates a faith in reconciliation, not only between
cartoons and fine art, but between parody and true feeling.
Question 1
Which one of the following best captures the author's attitude toward
Lichtenstein's work?
- enthusiasm for its more rebellious aspects
- respect for its successful parody of youth and innocence
- pleasure in its blatant rejection of abstract expressionism
- admiration for its subtle critique of contemporary culture
- appreciation for its ability to incorporate both realism and naivete
Explanation for Question 1
This question requires the test taker to understand the attitude
the author of the passage displays toward Lichtenstein's work.
The correct response is (E). Response (E) most accurately and
completely captures the author's attitude. First, the author's
appreciation for Lichtenstein's art is indicated by way of contrast with
the way in which the author describes what Lichtenstein's art is not.
For example, the author asserts that Lichtenstein's work "transcended
mere parody," and that unlike other pop art, it did not display a "jaded
cynicism." Similarly, the author holds that there is more to
Lichtenstein's work than "the reflective power that parodies possess in
relation to their subjects." Moreover, the author's appreciation is
reflected in several positive statements regarding Lichtenstein's work.
The author's appreciation for Lichtenstein's realism is indicated by the
author's statement that "Beneath its cartoonish methods, his work
displayed an impulse toward realism, an urge to say that what was
missing from contemporary painting was the depiction of contemporary
life." That the author also appreciates Lichtenstein's naivete is
demonstrated in this sentence: "Lichtenstein's work exuded not a jaded
cynicism about consumer culture, but a kind of deliberate naivete...."
This idea is further expanded in the next sentence, which says that "for
all their surface bravado," Lichtenstein's paintings possess "an inner
sweetness." It is important to note that these evaluations appear in
the last paragraph and form part of the author's conclusion about the
importance of Lichtenstein's art.
Response (A) is incorrect because, although in the last sentence of
paragraph two the author notes Lichtenstein's connection to a general
rebellion against abstract expressionism, the author also states quite
pointedly in the first sentence of the third paragraph: "But if rebellion
...were all that characterized Lichtenstein's work, it would possess only
the reflective power that parodies have...."
Response (B) is incorrect because, as noted in the first paragraph of
the passage, the author believes Lichtenstein's work transcended "mere
parody." Moreover, the author states in the last paragraph that comics,
"typically the domain of youth and innocence," were Lichtenstein's
"reference point" and filled his painting with "nostalgia" and an "inner
sweetness."
Response (C) is incorrect because, as mentioned above, the author
believes Lichtenstein's rebellion against abstract expressionism was not
the most important aspect of his work. Indeed, if it had been,
Lichtenstein's work would have been reduced to having "only the
reflective power that parodies have in relation to their subjects,"
where here the "subject" refers to abstract expressionism.
Response (D) is incorrect because the author very clearly says that
Lichtenstein embraced contemporary culture. In the last paragraph, the
author writes, "But, in contrast to some pop art, Lichtenstein's work
exuded not a jaded cynicism about consumer culture, but a kind of
deliberate naivete...."
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was a middle difficulty question.
Question 2
The author most likely lists some of the themes and objects
influencing and appearing in Lichtenstein's paintings
(middle of the
last paragraph) primarily to
- show that the paintings depict aspects of contemporary life
- support the claim that Lichtenstein's work was parodic in intent
- contrast Lichtenstein's approach to art with that of abstract expressionism
- suggest the emotions that lie at the heart of Lichtenstein's work
- endorse Lichtenstein's attitude toward consumer culture
Explanation for Question 2
This question requires the test taker to identify from the context
what the author is trying to accomplish by listing some of the themes
and objects that influenced and appeared in Lichtenstein's
paintings.
The correct response is (A). First, as the author notes in the same
sentence, the listed themes and objects "were reflections of the culture
Lichtenstein inhabited." Moreover, as the author argues in the sentence
that precedes the list, Lichtenstein's work displayed "an impulse toward
realism, an urge to say that what was missing from contemporary painting
was the depiction of contemporary life."
Response (B) is incorrect because the author does not claim that
Lichtenstein's work was parodic in intent. On the contrary, the author
states in the opening paragraph that Lichtenstein's work transcended
"mere parody."
Response (C) is incorrect because the author's comparison between
Lichtenstein's approach to art and that of the abstract expressionists
— which is located in paragraph two — concentrates on the
difference between Lichtenstein's and other pop artists' use of "simple
black lines and large areas of primary color" and the expressionists'
"airy" and "overly lyrical" work. This comparison does not involve the
list of themes and objects mentioned in question 2. The list is offered
instead as part of the author's argument in paragraph three that there
is more to Lichtenstein's work than its rebellion against abstract
expressionism.
Response (D) is incorrect because, although the listed themes and
objects "were reflections of the culture Lichtenstein inhabited," the
list by itself does not suggest anything about the emotions that lie at
the heart of Lichtenstein's work. The emotions in Lichtenstein's work
were revealed in Lichtenstein's treatment of those themes and objects,
which "exuded not a jaded cynicism about consumer culture, but a kind of
deliberate naivete..." The author goes on to assert that it is
Lichtenstein's use of conventions of comic art that gives his art its
"inner sweetness" and demonstrates his faith in the possibility of
reconciliation between "parody and true feeling."
Response (E) is incorrect because the list of themes and objects does
not in itself explain Lichtenstein's attitude toward consumer culture.
Instead, it is how he dealt with these objects and themes that shows,
according to the author, that Lichtenstein did not exude the "jaded
cynicism" of other pop artists.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was an easy question.
Question 3
The primary purpose of the passage is most likely to
- express curiosity about an artist's work
- clarify the motivation behind an artist's work
- contrast two opposing theories about an artist's work
- describe the evolution of an artist's work
- refute a previous overestimation of an artist's work
Explanation for Question 3
This question requires the test taker to look at the passage as a
whole and determine the author's primary purpose in writing it.
Response (B) is the correct response because it most accurately and
completely reflects the purpose of the passage as a whole. In the first
two paragraphs of the passage, the author uses phrases that are
suggestive of Lichtenstein's motivations, such as "poking fun at the
pretensions of the art world," and "rebel[ling] against the fading
emotional power of abstract expressionism." Then, in the third
paragraph, the author makes clear that Lichtenstein also had a more
serious aim that transcended these two — namely, that of depicting
contemporary life with a "kind of deliberate naivete." As the author
puts it in the final sentence, Lichtenstein's paintings demonstrated his
"faith in reconciliation...between parody and true feeling."
Response (A) is incorrect because the passage does not simply express
curiosity about Lichtenstein's work. Instead, the passage advances a
thesis about the importance of Lichtenstein's work as art.
Response (C) is incorrect because nowhere in the passage are two
opposing theories discussed.
Response (D) is incorrect because the passage does not cover the
evolution of Lichtenstein's work. The author makes no mention of when
any of the particular paintings were created in the course of
Lichtenstein's career, but instead treats the work as a unified
whole.
Response (E) is incorrect because a previous overestimation of
Lichtenstein's work is neither mentioned nor alluded to. If the passage
had an aim of this kind, it would seem to be the reverse, as the author
clearly thinks that Lichtenstein's work is valuable and has perhaps been
underestimated by those who see pop art as primarily parodic in
intent.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was an easy question.
Passage for Questions 4 and 5
The following passage was written in the late 1980s.
The struggle to obtain legal recognition of aboriginal rights is a
difficult one, and even if a right is written into the law there is no
guarantee that the future will not bring changes to the law that
undermine the right. For this reason, the federal government of Canada
in 1982 extended constitutional protection to those aboriginal rights
already recognized under the law. This protection was extended to the
Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples, the three groups generally
thought to comprise the aboriginal population in Canada. But this
decision has placed on provincial courts the enormous burden of
interpreting and translating the necessarily general constitutional
language into specific rulings. The result has been inconsistent
recognition and establishment of aboriginal rights, despite the
continued efforts of aboriginal peoples to raise issues concerning their
rights.
Aboriginal rights in Canada are defined by the constitution as
aboriginal peoples' rights to ownership of land and its resources, the
inherent right of aboriginal societies to self-government, and the right
to legal recognition of indigenous customs. But difficulties arise in
applying these broadly conceived rights. For example, while it might
appear straightforward to affirm legal recognition of indigenous
customs, the exact legal meaning of "indigenous" is extremely difficult
to interpret. The intent of the constitutional protection is to
recognize only long-standing traditional customs, not those of recent
origin; provincial courts therefore require aboriginal peoples to
provide legal documentation that any customs they seek to protect were
practiced sufficiently long ago — a criterion defined in practice
to mean prior to the establishment of British sovereignty over the
specific territory. However, this requirement makes it difficult for
aboriginal societies, which often relied on oral tradition rather than
written records, to support their claims.
Furthermore, even if aboriginal peoples are successful in convincing
the courts that specific rights should be recognized, it is frequently
difficult to determine exactly what these rights amount to. Consider
aboriginal land claims. Even when aboriginal ownership of specific
lands is fully established, there remains the problem of interpreting
the meaning of that "ownership." In a 1984 case in Ontario, an
aboriginal group claimed that its property rights should be interpreted
as full ownership in the contemporary sense of private property, which
allows for the sale of the land or its resources. But the provincial
court instead ruled that the law had previously recognized only the
aboriginal right to use the land and therefore granted property rights
so minimal as to allow only the bare survival of the community. Here,
the provincial court's ruling was excessively conservative in its
assessment of the current law. Regrettably, it appears that this group
will not be successful unless it is able to move its case from the
provincial courts into the Supreme Court of Canada, which will be, one
hopes, more insistent upon a satisfactory application of the
constitutional reforms.
Question 4
Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage?
- The overly conservative rulings of Canada's provincial
courts have been a barrier to constitutional
reforms intended to protect aboriginal rights.
- The overwhelming burden placed on provincial
courts of interpreting constitutional language in
Canada has halted efforts by aboriginal peoples
to gain full ownership of land.
- Constitutional language aimed at protecting
aboriginal rights in Canada has so far left the
protection of these rights uncertain due to the
difficult task of interpreting this language.
- Constitutional reforms meant to protect aboriginal
rights in Canada have in fact been used by some
provincial courts to limit these rights.
- Efforts by aboriginal rights advocates to uphold
constitutional reforms in Canada may be more
successful if heard by the Supreme Court rather
than by the provincial courts.
Explanation for Question 4
This question requires the examinee to identify the main point of the
passage. For an answer choice to be the main point of the passage, it
must do more than simply express a claim with which the author would
agree. The correct answer choice is the one that most accurately
expresses the point of the passage as a whole.
The correct answer choice is (C). The passage discusses the Canadian
federal government's 1982 decision to extend constitutional protection
to aboriginal rights. In the first paragraph the author claims that
this decision has "placed on provincial courts the enormous burden of
interpreting and translating the necessarily general constitutional
language into specific rulings." The rest of the passage
details the difficulties that have been encountered as provincial courts
have attempted to carry out this task. The second paragraph is
concerned mainly with the difficulties involved in interpreting the
legal meaning of "indigenous," especially as it relates to the
recognition of indigenous customs. The third paragraph focuses
primarily on an example of the difficulties encountered in an attempt to
interpret the meaning of "ownership." Answer choice (C) best captures
the main point of the passage as a whole. It is clear that the author
thinks the protection of aboriginal rights is uncertain, and it is clear
that the author feels this is due to the difficulties involved in
interpreting the general language of the constitutional reforms.
Answer choice (A) is incorrect. Near the end of the last paragraph,
the passage does mention one provincial court ruling that the author
feels is "excessively conservative." However, the author clearly intends this to
merely be one example of a problem caused by the difficult task of
interpreting the constitutional language, rather than the main point of
the passage. Moreover, even the "excessively conservative" decision
described in the last paragraph has not been a barrier to constitutional
reform. The constitution was already reformed in 1982 to extend
protection to aboriginal rights. The difficulties detailed in the
passage have arisen in legal efforts to apply the 1982 constitutional
changes.
Answer choice (B) is incorrect. While this answer choice does
identify the crucial issue involving the "overwhelming burden placed on
provincial courts of interpreting constitutional language," it is
incorrect inasmuch as it focuses only on "efforts by aboriginal peoples
to gain full ownership of land." It's clear that the author thinks land
ownership is only one of the important issues concerning aboriginal
rights. In the second paragraph, the author also discusses the right of self-government
and the right to legal recognition of indigenous customs.
Moreover, while the passage indicates that the "excessively
conservative" decision described in the last paragraph has been a
setback to one aboriginal group's efforts to gain full ownership of its
land, it does not say that such efforts have been "halted" by the
decision. In fact, the author suggests that the group in question may
seek to pursue its efforts further before the Supreme Court of Canada (last sentence of the passage).
Answer choice (D) is incorrect. The author points to one example of
a provincial court ruling that, in the author's opinion, seems to limit
aboriginal rights rather than protect them. However, it is incorrect to
regard this as the main point of the passage. The author's point
throughout the passage as a whole concerns the difficulty of
interpreting the general constitutional language aimed at protecting
aboriginal rights, not simply that some courts have limited these
rights.
Answer choice (E) is incorrect. The author does introduce the
possibility that the Supreme Court of Canada may be better able to
uphold constitutional reforms. The author even expresses hope that this
is so. But it is inaccurate to regard this hope as the main point of
the passage, because the Supreme Court is mentioned only in connection
with one specific court case. It is not central to the author's
discussion.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this
question correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was an
easy question.
Question 5
The passage provides evidence to suggest that the author would be
most likely to assent to which one of the following proposals?
- Aboriginal peoples in Canada should not be
answerable to the federal laws of Canada.
- Oral tradition should sometimes be considered legal
documentation of certain indigenous customs.
- Aboriginal communities should be granted full
protection of all of their customs.
- Provincial courts should be given no authority to
decide cases involving questions of aboriginal rights.
- The language of the Canadian constitution should
more carefully delineate the instances to which reforms apply.
Explanation for Question 5
This question requires the examinee to use evidence from the passage
to infer what the author would be most likely to believe. The question
is not simply to identify something that the author states explicitly.
Rather, the test taker must identify what can reasonably be inferred
from what the author says.
The correct answer choice is (B). In the second paragraph the author
discusses the aboriginal right to the legal recognition of indigenous
customs. It is clear from the tenor of the discussion in the passage
that the author believes that this right should be protected, but the
author notes that there have been difficulties in securing this
protection. According to the author, provincial courts have required
legal documentation as evidence that a custom is long-standing. As the
author points out at the end of the second paragraph, however,
this requirement is difficult to meet for
aboriginal societies, "which often relied on oral tradition rather than
written records." Given that the author believes that
aboriginal customs should receive legal recognition, and given that the
author regards the requirement of written documentation as an impediment
to such recognition in many cases, it can be inferred that the author
would be likely to assent to the statement that oral tradition should
sometimes be considered legal documentation for certain indigenous customs.
Answer choice (A) is incorrect. While the author clearly feels that
aboriginal rights should be protected, that is a far cry from thinking
that aboriginal peoples should not be answerable to federal laws. More
importantly, the author's argument in favor of the legal recognition of
aboriginal rights, and also the presumption that problems should be
resolved in the Canadian courts, suggest that the author probably
believes that aboriginal peoples should be answerable to Canadian laws.
Answer choice (C) is incorrect. The main point of the passage as a
whole is that there are difficulties involved in interpreting the
language of the constitutional protection of aboriginal rights.
Importantly, the author clearly agrees with the intentions of the
constitutional protection. In discussing the legal recognition of
aboriginal customs in the second paragraph, the author claims that the "intent of the
constitutional protection is to recognize only long-standing traditional
customs, not those of recent origin." Since the author
never questions this intent, there is no reason to think that the author
would agree that aboriginal peoples should be granted full protection of
all of their customs.
Answer choice (D) is incorrect. The author asserts that provincial
courts have been placed in the difficult position of interpreting
general constitutional language. This assertion takes it for granted
that the provincial courts are the correct venue for the interpretation
and application of the constitutional reforms. (If the author believed
otherwise, it would be incumbent on him or her to say as much, rather
than simply observing that the provincial courts are in a difficult
position.) Furthermore, the passage does not provide any other evidence
that the author thinks that provincial courts should be eliminated from
the process, or be stripped of their authority concerning issues of
aboriginal rights.
Answer choice (E) is incorrect. The author's main point is that
there are difficulties inherent in interpreting the language involved in
the constitutional protection of aboriginal rights in Canada.
Tellingly, however, the author describes the relevant constitutional
language as "necessarily general" (first paragraph), and there is no evidence to
suggest that the author believes that the language of the Canadian
constitution should be revised or rewritten.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was a difficult
question.
Passage for Questions 6 and 7
In economics, the term "speculative bubble" refers to a large upward
move in an asset's price driven not by the asset's fundamentals —
that is, by the earnings derivable from the asset — but rather by
mere speculation that someone else will be willing to pay a higher price
for it. The price increase is then followed by a dramatic decline in
price, due to a loss in confidence that the price will continue to rise,
and the "bubble" is said to have burst. According to Charles Mackay's
classic nineteenth-century account, the seventeenth-century Dutch tulip
market provides an example of a speculative bubble. But the economist
Peter Garber challenges Mackay's view, arguing that there is no evidence
that the Dutch tulip market really involved a speculative bubble.
By the seventeenth century, the Netherlands had become a center of
cultivation and development of new tulip varieties, and a market had
developed in which rare varieties of bulbs sold at high prices. For
example, a Semper Augustus bulb sold in 1625 for an amount of gold worth
about U.S. $11,000 in 1999. Common bulb varieties, on the other hand,
sold for very low prices. According to Mackay, by 1636 rapid price
rises attracted speculators, and prices of many varieties surged upward
from November 1636 through January 1637. Mackay further states that in
February 1637 prices suddenly collapsed; bulbs could not be sold at 10
percent of their peak values. By 1739, the prices of all the most
prized kinds of bulbs had fallen to no more than one two-hundredth of 1
percent of Semper Augustus's peak price.
Garber acknowledges that bulb prices increased dramatically from 1636
to 1637 and eventually reached very low levels. But he argues that this
episode should not be described as a speculative bubble, for the
increase and eventual decline in bulb prices can be explained in terms
of the fundamentals.
Garber
argues that a standard pricing pattern
occurs for new varieties of flowers. When a particularly prized variety
is developed, its original bulb sells for a high price. Thus, the
dramatic rise in the price of some original tulip bulbs could have
resulted as tulips in general, and certain varieties in particular,
became fashionable. However, as the prized bulbs become more readily
available through reproduction from the original bulb, their price falls
rapidly; after less than 30 years, bulbs sell at reproduction cost. But
this does not mean that the high prices of original bulbs are
irrational, for earnings derivable from the millions of bulbs descendent
from the original bulbs can be very high, even if each individual
descendent bulb commands a very low price. Given that an original bulb
can generate a reasonable return on investment even if the price of
descendent bulbs decreases dramatically, a rapid rise and eventual fall
of tulip bulb prices need not indicate a speculative bubble.
Question 6
The phrase "standard pricing pattern" as used in the
middle of the last paragraph
most nearly means a pricing pattern
- against which other pricing patterns are to be measured
- that conforms to a commonly agreed-upon criterion
- that is merely acceptable
- that regularly recurs in certain types of cases
- that serves as an exemplar
Explanation for Question 6
This question requires the test taker to understand from context the
meaning of the phrase "standard pricing pattern," which is used by the
author in a particular way.
The correct answer choice is (D). The phrase occurs in the last
paragraph of the passage. The purpose of this paragraph is to detail
Garber's reasons for thinking that, contrary to Mackay's view, the
seventeenth-century Dutch tulip market did not involve a speculative
bubble. It is in this context that the author uses the phrase in
question. The complete sentence reads, "Garber argues that a standard
pricing pattern occurs for new varieties of flowers." The author then
explains this standard pricing pattern: original bulbs for prized new
varieties initially command a high price, but descendants produced from
the original bulbs cost dramatically less over time. It is clear that
the author takes Garber to be describing a regularly recurring pattern
about the pricing of new varieties of flowers, and then asserting that
the particular details about the pricing of tulip bulbs in the
seventeenth century fit this recurring pattern. Thus, answer choice (D)
is correct, since it paraphrases the use of the term "standard pricing
pattern" as a pricing pattern "that regularly recurs in certain types of
cases."
Answer choice (A) is incorrect. Nowhere does the author suggest that
pricing patterns can or should be "measured" against one another, much
less against a pricing pattern that is for some reason taken to be the
benchmark.
Answer choice (B) is incorrect. The passage as a whole does concern
the interpretation of the pricing of tulip bulbs in the
seventeenth-century, and it might be said that the debate between Mackay
and Garber concerns whether this case fits commonly agreed-upon criteria
regarding speculative bubbles. However, in the middle of the
last paragraph Garber's point is simply about prices fitting a pattern observed
in a number of other cases. In this way, it is a point about conformance to a historical
pattern, not to agreed-upon standards.
Answer choice (C) is incorrect. There is no reason to think that the
author views pricing patterns as "acceptable" or unacceptable, or that
the author believes there is a standard for acceptability.
Answer choice (E) is incorrect. An "exemplar" would be a particular
case that serves as some kind of model or ideal. No particular case is
being offered up as a model in the third paragraph. Instead the
"standard pricing pattern" is only described generally, not by reference
to some paradigm example of the pattern Garber has in mind.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was a difficult question.
Question 7
Given Garber's account of the seventeenth-century Dutch tulip market,
which one of the following is most analogous to someone who bought a
tulip bulb of a certain variety in that market at a very high price,
only to sell a bulb of that variety at a much lower price?
- someone who, after learning that many others had withdrawn their applications for a particular job,
applied for the job in the belief that there would be less competition for it
- an art dealer who, after paying a very high price for a new painting, sells it at a very low price because
it is now considered to be an inferior work
- someone who, after buying a box of rare motorcycle parts at a very high price, is forced to sell them
at a much lower price because of the sudden availability of cheap substitute parts
- a publisher who pays an extremely high price for a new novel only to sell copies at a price
affordable to nearly everyone
- an airline that, after selling most of the tickets for seats on a plane at a very high price, must sell the
remaining tickets at a very low price
Explanation for Question 7
This question requires the test taker to identify the scenario that
is most analogous to the way in which Garber would view the purchase of
a tulip bulb at a very high price, and the later sale of tulip bulbs of
that same variety at a much lower price. Before looking at the answer
choices, it is worth getting clear on the specifics of Garber's account.
In Garber's view, the value of the original bulb reflects the earnings
that can be made from the descendant bulbs. Since an original bulb will
produce multiple descendants, the value of the original will be much
greater than the value of any individual descendant. The value of the
original reflects the cumulative value of the descendants. Thus,
someone could buy an original bulb at a very high price and still turn a
profit by selling descendant bulbs at a much lower price.
The correct answer choice is (D). The relation between the
manuscript of a new novel and the copies that can be made of that novel
is analogous to the relation between an original bulb and its
descendants. From the original novel, the publisher can produce many
copies. The copies can then be sold for a much lower price than the
original. The value of the new novel reflects the cumulative value of
the sales of the copies.
Answer choice (A) is incorrect. The scenario described does not
include anything akin to the relationship between an original bulb and
later descendants. Instead, it presents an example of someone who
applies for a job based on a perception about the degree of competition for that job.
Answer choice (B) is incorrect. In this scenario, the value of the
painting has dropped due to critical or public opinion. This represents
a case in which the art dealer has taken a loss, not one where the art
dealer recoups the original value of the painting through an
accumulation of smaller sales.
Answer choice (C) is incorrect. On the surface, the drop in price of
the motorcycle parts due to a flooded market of replacement parts seems
similar to the drop in price of the bulbs of a variety of flowers.
However, the situation is disanalogous in crucial respects. The cheap
substitute parts cannot be described as anything like "descendants" of
the original rare parts, and the owner of the box of rare parts does not
get the value back through the cumulative sales of the cheap
replacements. Indeed, the owner of the box of rare motorcycle parts was
simply forced to sell the parts at a loss.
Answer choice (E) is incorrect. The airline had a certain number of
seats for which they could sell tickets. The drop in price over time is
not a product of increased availability, as in the case of the flower
bulbs. In this case, the number of available seats has actually
decreased. While it is surely rational for the airline to reduce the
price of the seats, the situation is not analogous to the drop in price
of descendant flower bulbs.
Based on the number of test takers who answered this question
correctly when it appeared on the LSAT, this was a difficult
question.
Passage Pair for Questions 8 through 14
For the following comparative reading set, information about the
difficulty of the questions is not available.
The following passages were adapted from articles published in the mid-1990s.
Passage A
In January 1995 a vast section of ice broke off the Larsen ice shelf
in Antarctica. While this occurrence, the direct result of a regional
warming trend that began in the 1940s, may be the most spectacular
manifestation yet of serious climate changes occurring on the planet as
a consequence of atmospheric heating, other symptoms — more
intense storms, prolonged droughts, extended heat waves, and record
flooding — have been emerging around the world for several
years.
According to scientific estimates, furthermore, sea-level rise
resulting from global warming will reach 3 feet (1 meter) within the
next century. Such a rise could submerge vast coastal areas, with
potentially irreversible consequences.
Late in 1995 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reported that it had detected the "fingerprint" of human activity as a
contributor to the warming of the earth's atmosphere. Furthermore,
panel scientists attributed such warming directly to the increasing
quantities of carbon dioxide released by our burning of fossil fuels.
The IPCC report thus clearly identifies a pattern of climatic response
to human activities in the climatological record, thereby establishing
without doubt that global warming can no longer be attributed solely to
natural climate variability.
Passage B
Over the past two decades, an extreme view of global warming has
developed. While it contains some facts, this view also contains
exaggerations and misstatements, and has sometimes resulted in
unreasonable environmental policies.
According to this view, global warming will cause the polar ice to
melt, raising global sea levels, flooding entire regions, destroying
crops, and displacing millions of people. However, there is still a
great deal of uncertainty regarding a potential rise in sea levels.
Certainly, if the earth warms, sea levels will rise as the water heats
up and expands. If the polar ice caps melt, more water will be added to
the oceans, raising sea levels even further.
There is some evidence
that melting has occurred; however, there is also evidence that the
Antarctic ice sheets are growing. In fact, it is possible that a warmer
sea surface temperature will cause more water to evaporate, and when
wind carries the moisture-laden air over the land, it will precipitate
out as snow, causing the ice sheets to grow. Certainly, we need to have
better knowledge about the hydrological cycle before predicting dire
consequences as a result of recent increases in global temperatures.
This view also exaggerates the impact that human activity has on the
planet. While human activity may be a factor in global warming, natural
events appear to be far more important. The 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines, for example, caused a decrease in the
average global temperature, while El Niño, a periodic
perturbation in the ocean's temperature and circulation, causes extreme
global climatic events, including droughts and major flooding. Of even
greater importance to the earth's climate are variations in the sun's
radiation and in the earth's orbit. Climate variability has always
existed and will continue to do so, regardless of human
intervention.
Question 8
Which one of the following questions is central to both passages?
- How has an increase in the burning of fossil fuels
raised the earth's temperature?
- To what extent can global warming be attributed to human activity?
- What steps should be taken to reduce the rate of global warming?
- What kinds of human activities increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
- To what extent is global warming caused by variations in the sun's radiation and the earth's orbit?
Explanation for Question 8
Most single-passage reading comprehension sets include a question
that asks about the passage's main point or central topic, or the
author's main purpose in writing. The same is true of most comparative
reading sets, but in comparative reading sets the questions may ask
about the main point, primary purpose, or central issue of both
passages, as is the case here.
The correct response is (B), "To what extent can global warming be
attributed to human activity?" Both passages are concerned with the
current warming trend in the earth's climate, which is generally
referred to as "global warming." Both passages agree that the earth's
climate is indeed getting warmer, but it is clear that the two authors
differ in their views on the issue. In the third paragraph of each
passage, the author raises the question of the causes of global warming.
The third paragraph of passage A cites a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) that attributes warming "directly to the increasing
quantities of carbon dioxide released by our burning of fossil fuels."
The author concludes, "The IPCC report thus clearly
identifies a pattern of climatic response to human activities in the
climatological record, thereby establishing without doubt that global
warming can no longer be attributed solely to natural climate
variability." In contrast, in the third paragraph of passage B, the author
argues, "While human activity may be a factor in global warming, natural
events appear to be far more important." In other words,
a central concern in each passage is the cause of global warming, and
more specifically, the extent to which the phenomenon can be attributed
to human activity or to natural climate variability. Thus, response (B)
expresses a question that is central to both passages.
Response (A) is incorrect because passage B does not address the
issue of fossil fuels. While passage A states that the
IPCC scientists
attributed global warming "directly to the increasing quantities of
carbon dioxide released by our burning of fossil fuels" (third paragraph),
passage B makes no mention of fossil fuels or carbon dioxide.
Response (C) is incorrect because neither passage discusses steps
that should be taken to reduce global warming. The author of passage A
believes that global warming is a serious problem for which human
activity bears significant responsibility, so he or she presumably
believes that some steps should indeed be taken. But he or she does not
actually discuss any such steps. Meanwhile, the author of passage B is
not even convinced that human activity bears much responsibility for
global warming; accordingly, passage B is not concerned at all with the
question of what steps should be taken to address the problem.
Response (D) is incorrect because, as mentioned in the explanation of
response (A) above, passage B makes no mention of carbon dioxide or of
any kinds of human activities that increase carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
Response (E) is incorrect because passage A does not mention
variations in the sun's radiation and the earth's orbit as possible
causes of global warming. The author of passage B mentions variations
in the sun's radiation and the earth's orbit as natural contributors to
climate variation, but does so in order to illustrate a more general
point, namely, that natural climate variability may very well explain
global warming. The sun's radiation and the earth's orbit are not the
central concern of passage B.
Question 9
Which one of the following is mentioned in passage B but not in
passage A as a possible consequence of global warming?
- an increase in the size of the Antarctic ice sheet
- a decrease in the amount of snowfall
- a falling of ocean sea levels
- an increase in the severity of heat waves
- an increase in the frequency of major flooding
Explanation for Question 9
This question is designed to test the ability to recognize a
significant difference in the content of the two passages.
The correct response is (A), "an increase in the size of the Antarctic
ice sheet." In the second paragraph of passage B, the author explicitly cites the possibility
that the Antarctic ice sheet will grow as a result of warmer sea
temperatures brought about by global warming. On the other hand,
passage A does not mention any possibility that the Antarctic ice sheet
might grow. In fact, on the topic of the Antarctic ice sheet, passage A
alludes only to the breaking off of part of the Larsen ice shelf (first sentence of
the passage), which suggests that, if anything, the author of passage A believes
that the Antarctic ice sheet is shrinking because of global warming.
Thus response (A) describes something that is mentioned in passage B,
but not passage A, as a possible consequence of global warming.
Response (B) is incorrect because passage B mentions only increased
snowfall as a possible consequence of global warming. The correct
response must be something mentioned in passage B but not in passage A.
Response (C) is incorrect because passage B mentions only rising sea
levels as a possible consequence of global warming. The author's
reference to the possibility that the Antarctic ice sheet might grow
suggests that, in the author's eyes, the rise in sea level might be
slowed. But nowhere does the author say that sea levels might drop as a
consequence of global warming.
Response (D) is incorrect because, while passage A mentions extended
heat waves as a consequence of global warming, passage B does not
mention heat waves in any connection.
Response (E) is incorrect because passage A discusses major flooding
as a consequence of global warming in the first two paragraphs.
Question 10
The authors of the two passages would be most likely to disagree over
- whether or not any melting of the polar ice caps has occurred
- whether natural events can cause changes in global climate conditions
- whether warmer air temperatures will be likely to raise oceanic water temperatures
- the extent to which natural climate variability is responsible for global warming
- the extent to which global temperatures have risen in recent decades
Explanation for Question 10
A significant number of questions for Comparative Reading passages
require an ability to infer what the authors' views are and how they
compare. Some questions ask about points of agreement between the
authors. Others, such as this one, ask about points on which the
authors disagree.
As you read the response choices for a question of this sort, it is a
good idea to recall what you may have already concluded about points of
agreement and disagreement between the authors. For example, it was
noted above that the authors of these two passages disagree on at least
one key issue (see the explanation of question 8) — the causes of
global warming. The correct response to this question is related to
this point of contention: the correct response is (D), "the extent to
which natural climate variability is responsible for global warming."
In the last paragraph of passage A, the author states, "The IPCC report
thus clearly identifies a pattern of climatic response to human
activities in the climatological record, thereby establishing without
doubt that global warming can no longer be attributed solely to natural
climate variability." In contrast, in the last paragraph of passage B, the author states, "While human
activity may be a factor in global warming, natural events appear to be
far more important." In short, while the author of passage A holds that
human activity is substantially responsible for global warming, the
author of passage B holds that natural events may exert far more
influence on the earth's climate.
Response (A) is incorrect because it is not clear that the authors
would disagree over this issue. In the first paragraph of passage A,
the author describes the breaking off of part of the Larsen ice shelf in
Antarctica as "the direct result of a regional warming trend that began
in the 1940s." The author does not use the precise words the "melting
of the polar ice caps," but the implication of what the author does say
is that such melting is obviously taking place. On the other hand, it
is not clear that the author of passage B would disagree with this
claim, since the author concedes that there is evidence supporting the
position: "There is some evidence that melting has occurred..."
(second paragraph).
Response (B) is incorrect because both authors would agree that
natural events can cause changes in global climate conditions. Since
the author of passage B argues that natural events appear to be a more
important factor in global warming than human activity, he or she must
agree that natural events can affect global climate. And indeed, in the
last paragraph the author cites the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, El
Niño, and variations in the sun's radiation and the earth's orbit
as examples of natural events that are known to have done so. On the
other hand, the concluding sentence of passage A — which ends with
the claim that the IPCC report has established "that global warming can no
longer be attributed solely to natural climate variability"
(emphasis added) — indirectly acknowledges that natural events do
play a role in changes in the earth's climate. Thus the authors would
agree with respect to response (B).
Response (C) is incorrect because the passages provide no evidence
for concluding that the authors would disagree over the effect of warmer
air temperatures on oceanic water temperatures. The author of passage B
holds that warmer air temperatures would heat up the oceans. The author
states in the second paragraph, "Certainly, if the earth warms, sea
levels will rise as the water heats up and expands." However, the
author of passage A says nothing at all about a causal relationship
between air temperature and oceanic water temperatures, and this lack of
evidence does not allow us to conclude that the author would disagree
with the view expressed by the author of passage B.
Response (E) is incorrect because the passages do not provide any
specific indications regarding either author's views on the extent to
which global temperatures have risen in recent decades. Both authors
presume that global temperatures have risen, but they say nothing that
would allow us to draw any clear inferences regarding their views on how
much.
Question 11
Which one of the phenomena cited in passage A is an instance of the kind of "evidence"
referred to in the middle of the second paragraph of passage B?
- the breaking off of part of the Larsen ice shelf in 1995
- higher regional temperatures since the 1940s
- increases in storm intensities over the past several years
- the increased duration of droughts in recent years
- the increased duration of heat waves over the past decade
Explanation for Question 11
This question concerns the use of the word "evidence" in the second
paragraph of passage B. The author acknowledges that there is "some evidence"
that melting of the polar ice caps has occurred. This question asks the examinee
to identify which of the phenomena cited in passage A could be seen as an example
of that kind of evidence.
The correct response is (A), "the breaking off of part of the Larsen
ice shelf in 1995." The author of passage A cites this event in the first sentence,
and it is evidence of melting of the polar ice caps.
Response (B) is incorrect because, while the higher temperatures in
the Antarctic region since the 1940s might well be the cause of any
melting of the polar ice that has taken place, it cannot be used as
evidence of that melting.
Responses (C), (D), and (E) are incorrect because the phenomena they
refer to — increased storm intensities, longer droughts, and
longer heat waves — are all different possible consequences of
global warming, like the melting of the polar ice caps. None of these
phenomena can be taken as evidence of the melting of the polar ice
caps.
Question 12
The author of passage B would be most likely to make which one of the
following criticisms about the predictions cited in passage A concerning
a rise in sea level?
- These predictions incorrectly posit a causal
relationship between the warming of the earth
and rising sea levels.
- These predictions are supported only by inconclusive
evidence that some melting of the polar ice caps
has occurred.
- These predictions exaggerate the degree to which
global temperatures have increased in recent decades.
- These predictions rely on an inadequate
understanding of the hydrological cycle.
- These predictions assume a continuing increase in
global temperatures that may not occur.
Explanation for Question 12
This question requires the examinee to infer what the opinion of one
of the authors would be regarding a view expressed in the other passage.
Specifically, the question asks which criticism the author of passage B
would be most likely to offer in response to the predictions made in
passage A concerning rising sea levels. The predictions in question are
found in the second paragraph of passage A. There the author cites
scientific estimates that global warming will result in a sea-level rise
of 3 feet (1 meter) within the next century. At the end of the
paragraph, the author adds, "Such a rise could submerge vast coastal
areas, with potentially irreversible consequences."
The correct response is (D). The author of passage B addresses the
effects of global warming on sea levels in the second paragraph. In the
third sentence of that paragraph, the author concedes that warming water
would expand, causing sea levels to rise, and that the problem would be
compounded if the polar ice caps melt. But the author of passage B goes
on to argue two sentences later that warmer water temperatures might
also result in more evaporation, which in turn could produce more
snowfall on the polar ice caps, causing the ice caps to grow. The
author concludes the discussion of sea levels by stating, "Certainly, we
need to have better knowledge about the hydrological cycle before
predicting dire consequences as a result of recent increases in global
temperatures." Since the author of passage A does in fact cite
predictions of dire consequences, which are evidently made without
taking into account the possible mitigating factors discussed in passage
B, the author of passage B would be likely to regard those predictions
as relying on an inadequate understanding of the hydrological cycle.
Response (A) is incorrect because the author of passage B agrees that
there is a causal relationship between the warming of the earth and
rising sea levels (third sentence of the second paragraph). The author of passage B holds,
however, that the relationship between global temperatures and sea
levels is more complex than acknowledged by those who make dire
predictions. But the author does not object to merely positing that
there is such a causal relationship.
Response (B) is incorrect because the author of passage B is aware
that at least one factor other than the melting of the ice caps —
namely the expansion of water as it warms — can cause sea levels
to rise (third sentence of the second paragraph). There is no indication that the author of
passage B believes that those who make the predictions cited in passage
A are unaware of this additional factor, or that the melting of the
polar ice caps is the only causal mechanism they rely on in making their
predictions.
Response (C) is incorrect. The author of passage B does dispute the
conclusions drawn by some people, such as the author of passage A,
regarding the causes and consequences of the warming trend. But, as
noted in the explanation for question 10, there is no evidence that the
author of passage B disputes any claims made about the extent of the
warming that has taken place so far.
Response (E) is incorrect because the author of passage B says
nothing about any assumptions concerning future temperature increases
underlying the dire predictions cited in passage A. There is therefore
no evidence that the author of passage B is likely to view such
assumptions as grounds for criticism.
Question 13
The relationship between passage A and passage B is most
analogous to the relationship between the documents described
in which one of the following?
- a research report that raises estimates of damage done by above-ground nuclear testing; an article
that describes practical applications for nuclear power in the energy production and medical fields
- an article arguing that corporate patronage biases scientific studies about the impact of pollution on
the ozone layer; a study suggesting that aerosols in the atmosphere may counteract damaging
effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the ozone layer
- an article citing evidence that the spread of human development into pristine natural areas is causing
catastrophic increases in species extinction; an article arguing that naturally occurring cycles of
extinction are the most important factor in species loss
- an article describing the effect of prolonged drought on crop production in the developing
world; an article detailing the impact of innovative irrigation techniques in water-scarce agricultural areas
- a research report on crime and the decline of various neighborhoods from 1960 to 1985; an
article describing psychological research on the most important predictors of criminal behavior
Explanation for Question 13
The response choices in this question describe pairs of hypothetical
documents. Based on the descriptions of those documents, you are asked
to identify the pair of documents that stand in a relationship to each
other that is most analogous to the relationship between passage A and
passage B. In order to answer this question, you need to determine, at
least in a general way, what the relationship between passage A and
passage B is.
As already discussed, the authors of passage A and passage B agree
that global warming is occurring, but they disagree as to its cause.
Passage A holds that human activity is substantially responsible, and in
the last paragraph the author quotes the
IPCC claim that warming is due "directly
to the increasing quantities of carbon dioxide released by our burning
of fossil fuels." The last paragraph of passage B, on the other hand,
states, "While human activity may be a factor in global warming, natural
events appear to be far more important."
The closest analogy to this relationship is found in response (C):
an article citing evidence that the spread of human development into
pristine natural areas is causing catastrophic increases in species
extinction; an article arguing that naturally occurring cycles of
extinction are the most important factor in species loss.
Like passage A and passage B, these two documents both agree that a
trend — loss of species — is occurring. And also like
passage A and passage B, these two documents differ in their assignment
of responsibility for the trend. The first document identifies human
activity as the salient cause, while the second document identifies
natural cycles as the salient cause. Most importantly, both articles
discuss the same phenomenon, and they propose conflicting explanations
of the phenomenon, as is the case with passages A and B.
Response (A) is incorrect because the two documents discuss related
topics — damage done by above-ground nuclear testing and practical
applications of nuclear power — rather than the same topic, as in
passage A and passage B. They are not attempting to explain the same
phenomenon.
Response (B) is incorrect because while, at a general level, both
documents engage the same topic — the effect of pollution on the
ozone layer — they do not appear to agree that there is a
phenomenon that needs to be explained, much less offer competing or
conflicting explanations. The first document argues that at least some
studies of the problem are beset with bias, without apparently making
any claims about how pollution affects the ozone layer. Meanwhile, the
second document seems to argue that the effects of different types of
pollution may cancel each other out.
Response (D) is incorrect because the second document describes what
appears to be a potential way to address the problem identified in the
first document. Neither passage A nor passage B discusses a method for
addressing the problem of global warming.
Response (E) is incorrect because the two documents discuss related
problems, rather than the same problem. The first document discusses
the relationship between crime and the decline of various neighborhoods
over 25 years, while the second document addresses a different question:
factors that might predict criminal behavior in individuals.
Question 14
Which one of the following most accurately describes the relationship
between the argument made in passage A and the argument made in passage B?
- Passage A draws conclusions that are not based on
hard evidence, while passage B confines itself to
proven fact.
- Passage A relies on evidence that dates back to
the 1940s, while passage B relies on much more
recent evidence.
- Passage A warns about the effects of certain recent
phenomena, while passage B argues that some
inferences based on those phenomena are unfounded.
- Passage A makes a number of assertions that
passage B demonstrates to be false.
- Passage A and passage B use the same evidence
to draw diametrically opposed conclusions.
Explanation for Question 14
This question tests for the ability to understand how the arguments
in the two passages unfold and how they are related.
The correct response is (C). The author of passage A begins by
describing some of the recent phenomena attributed to atmospheric
heating. Some of the author's particular choices of words — such
as "the most spectacular manifestation yet" (second sentence of
the passage, italics added) and "have been emerging around the world for
several years" (end of the first paragraph) — clearly imply that
such "spectacular" phenomena are likely to continue to emerge in the
coming years. And in the second paragraph, the author describes the
effects of a predicted sea-level rise due to global warming as
"potentially irreversible." In contrast, the author of passage B argues
that an "extreme view" of global warming has developed, containing
"exaggerations and misstatements" (first paragraph of the passage). For
example, at the end of the second paragraph the author argues,
"Certainly, we need to have better knowledge about the hydrological
cycle before predicting dire consequences as a result of recent
increases in global temperatures." Thus, unlike the author of passage
A, the author of passage B argues that some of the conclusions based on
the phenomena surrounding global warming lack foundation.
Response (A) is incorrect because the author of passage A does in
fact rely on hard evidence in drawing his or her conclusions. Though
the author of passage B obviously questions inferences like those drawn
in passage A, the evidence used in passage A (the breaking off of the
Larsen ice shelf, more intense storms, etc.) is not in dispute. Nor
does the argument in passage B confine itself exclusively to proven
fact: in the second to last sentence of the second paragraph, the
author speculates about possible implications of the "hydrological
cycle" for the Antarctic ice sheet.
Response (B) is incorrect because both passages rely on recent
evidence — for example, see the beginning and end of the first
paragraph of passage A and the reference to Mount Pinatubo in the last
paragraph of passage B.
Response (D) is incorrect because passage B does not demonstrate that
any of the assertions made in passage A are false. For example, the
author of passage B concludes the discussion of sea level in the second
paragraph by stating, "Certainly, we need to have better knowledge about
the hydrological cycle before predicting dire consequences as a result
of recent increases in global temperatures." This does not amount to a
demonstration of the falsity of the predictions.
Response (E) is incorrect because, while both passages refer to some
of the same phenomena — such as melting of polar ice — each
also cites evidence that the other passage does not mention. In
reaching its conclusion, passage A cites intense storms and extended
heat waves in the first paragraph, and the release of carbon dioxide
from burning fossil fuels in the third paragraph; passage B mentions
none of these things. In reaching its quite different conclusion,
passage B cites the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, El Niño, and
variations in the sun's radiation and in the earth's orbit, as well as
evidence that the Antarctic ice sheets might be growing. None of this
evidence is mentioned in passage A.
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